William Gladstone's Foreign Policy
William Gladstone's policies have attracted much attention over the years. I decided to investigate Gladstone's foreign policy, specifically regarding the occupation of Egypt in 1882. In order to establish the context of the decisions made regarding Egypt some background information on the formation of the ideas Gladstone discussed needs to be covered. Along the way, I discuss Gladstone political position with respect to the political parties and policies on which Gladstone changed his position over the course of his political career. I begin with Gladstone's political roots in the government of William Peel.
The Peelites were the free trade wing of the Conservative party. Prominent among them was William Gladstone. The Peelites had served in Derby's protectionist government, but split with the Conservatives over Disreaeli's budget in 1852. Gladstone lead the Peelites into a union with the Whigs, forming what was called the 'Aberdeen Coalition'. Gladstone took over Disraeli's position as chancellor of the Exchequer. In Peelite fashion he opposed the expansion of the voter franchise in 1854.
Gladstone was not involved in the decision to go to war with Russia in 1854, but he was responsible for somehow financing the war. He defended the government's conduct of the Crimean War before the House of Commons on January 29th, 1855, although not specifically the decision itself to go to war. This was to no avail as the Select Committee on the conduct of the war voted no-confidence 304 to 148 anyway. Gladstone reluctantly joined Palmerston's Liberal government in February, but he resigned on the 22nd over the decision to continue of the Select Committee to investigate the conduct of the Crimean War.
In May, 1855 Gladstone attacked the government over the Crimean War when peace negotiations had broken down and the war was to continue. He proposed that Britain should favor Russia over Turkey. In December 1856 he wrote "I think Ld Palmerston the worst and the most demoralizing Prime Minister for this country that our day has known. In 1858 eighty liberal MPs deserted Palmerston over a bill that would have made conspiracy to murder a felony. Lord Derby then formed a Conservative government, but Gladstone refused Derby's offer of a cabinet post. Of relevance later, in 1858 approved of the plan to construct the Suez Canal, disagreeing with the majority in the House of Commons. Palmerston returned as Prime Minister in 1859 and Gladstone returned to the chancellor of the Exchequer.
Gladstone supported increased trade with France, and proposed the French Commercial Treaty of 1860. Palmerston and the majority of the cabinet were opposed to one provision of the treaty, the repeal of the paper duty. Palmerson needed the revenue to build new ironclads and port fortifications, the latter of which Gladstone strongly opposed on financial grounds and its purpose of countering the French Navy. Gladstone started adopting more liberal positions. For example, he supported of expansion of the franchise to working men in the 1860's. Palmerston died in October 1865 and Lord John Russell became the new Liberal PM.
Russell was a reformer. A new reform bill was shortly proposed to extend the vote down to men occupying a residence worth seven pounds per year (down from 10 pounds). With Gladstone leading the efforts in the House of Commons, this effort failed and the Russell government resigned. Derby returned as PM, and his Conservative government proposed a largely unchanged reform bill. Now Gladstone opposed an almost identical reform bill, ostensibly because it didn't go far enough expanding the franchise. Fellow Liberals largely did not follow Gladstone's leadership and voted for Disraeli's bill, which passed in August as the Reform of 1867.
Gladstone restored his leadership position with the liberals following terrorist attacks by Irish nationalist. He proposed disestablishment of the Church of Ireland. This was a change from Gladstone's previous positions, done in an effort to respond to a legitimate Irish grievance. In July of 1868 Gladstone passed resolutions opposed to the government, leading to the election of 1868 which returned a Liberal victory. After the election the new Prime Minister, Gladstone, published A Chapter of Autobiography describing his change of mind regarding the Church of Ireland. Therein Gladstone writes that the Establishment of the Church of Ireland is an 'insult to the religion of the majority'. He had come to the realization that 'the attempt to maintain an Established Church becomes an error fatal to the peace'. In 1869 the Gladstone government passed the disestablishment of the Irish Church, it became only one of Ireland's churches.
In the summer of 1870 France and Prussia moved towards war. Gladstone cabinet chose a neutral strategy, while guaranteeing Belgium territory. The French declared war against Prussia on July 19, 1970 over fears that Bismarck was attempting to place a Hoenzollern on the Spainish throne. Surprising to Gladstone and the French themselves, but not to Bismarck, the French Army was soundly defeated. Gladstone opposed the French ceding the region of Alsace-Lorraine to the Germans, but could not convince his cabinet to go along with his proposal to counter the annexation. Gladstone then attempted unsuccessfully to appeal to the public, against his own cabinet, through an 'anonymous' letter printed in the Edinburgh Review, October 1870. Observing the Prussian victory, Gladstone then attempted to reform the British army. The controversial element of this reform was the abolition of the purchase of army commissions. This reform did pass, but thereafter the government had lost some support from the Whigish wing of the Liberal party.
Gladstone's national security credentials were embarrassed by three naval disasters in 1871, and its unpopular payment of over 4 million pounds (3.2 million pounds according to Crosby) to the United States as repayment for a private British shipbuilder building the commerce raider Alabama for the Confederacy in back in 1862. This was counter to the previous position Britain had taken on the American claim, that the British Government did not sanction the building and delivery of the Alabama, or even having have knowledge of the secret purchase and delivery of the raider to the Confederacy. This change in policy can be understood better in the context of the times. Public sentiment in the United States was strongly anti-British over the issue, even to the point of supporting the Irish nationalist group Sinn Fin. His action to appease the Americans was in concert with his other actions to try to stem the support terrorism by Irish national group.
The Ashanti Expedition of 1873-74 offers some insight into Gladstone's policies regarding colonies. In 1872 the Ashanti invaded the Gold Coast. The British allies, the Fante, were defeated by the Ashanti army. At the beginning of August, 1973, a British expedition was approved by the cabinet. The local commanders decided upon a frontal assault attack without consulting Gladstone. These attacks were successful. When attacks further up the Volta River were suggested, Gladstone approved. This was to be done with troops on-hand, but the situation deteriorated and more troops were required. Gladstone then encouraged peace rather than escalation, but this view did not prevail with his cabinet or the Queen.
The Gladstone government was again embarrassed by confusion over a bill to provide new universities in Ireland in 1873, which went down to defeat when the Roman Catholic Church opposed the bill and Irish Catholic MPs voted against it. The Conservative leader Disraeli refused to form a government, so the Liberals stayed in power. Gladstone told his cabinet he had a 'keen sense of disloyalty of the party in the last three years', calling for a new election in 1974 even though no resignation had been requested. Gladstone hoped his repeal of the income tax would draw enough voters to result in a Liberal victory, but instead the results were 350 Conservative MPs, 245 Liberals, and 57 Irish home rulers and Disraeli returning a Prime Minister.
After this defeat Gladstone largely withdrew from politics. He resigned the party leadership in January of 1875. It should be noted here that in the autumn of 1875 Disraeli used government funds to purchase almost half of the shares in the Suez Canal Company without prior approval. His pen was reactivated when the news of Turkish atrocities against a Bulgarian insurrection were widely reported in the press, where 15,000 Bulgarian civilians, including many women and children, had be slaughtered. In 1876 Gladstone published The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East. This pamphlet quickly became a best seller. To Gladstone, the actions of the Turkish government demonstrated their failure to implement reforms suggested by Britain and France after the Crimean War. He criticized the Conservative government's handling of the news, but agreed with its sending British Warships to Constantinople and other Turkish ports to protect Turkish Christians. He suggested local government for the Balkan states, a proposal that should be presented by the Councils of Europe.
PM Disraeli was more worried about the Russia threat than interested in a attempt to reform the Ottoman empire. When Russia declared war on Turkey in April 1877, he took a relatively neutral stance. Gladstone proposed a British policy of emancipation for the Balkan states, a proposal that divided the Liberal party. He wrote The Hellenic Factor in the Eastern Problem, where the courageous Greeks, the "Hellenic races", are described as being persecuted by the Ottoman Empire. Always concerned with order, he adds: "As (Greece) does not molest Europe, so the people, always sound at heart, do not molest the Government, but obey the laws" He was obviously sympathetic with the Greek nationalist movement, especially since they were fellow Christians.
After the Russian military victory Disraeli rejected the Treaty of San Stefano, instead proposing a European conference to deal with the issue of the Balkan states. Turkey ceded Cyprus to Britain in exchange for a defense alliance with Turkey. Gladstone and other Liberals protested these moves resulting in accusations that they were traitors. In November of 1878 war between Russia and Britain in Afghanistan broke out. The Indian Army invaded Afghanistan, but then a mutiny of the Indians in the Afghan Army massacred the entire British mission. In South Africa the British commander moved against the Zulus in 1879 with initially disastrous results. An economic depression in 1879 added to the troubles of Disraeli's government. Public sentiment turned against the Conservative government after these setbacks.
Gladstone labeled the imperialist policies of the Disraeli government 'Beaconsfieldism', in reference to Disreali's parliamentary district. Gladstone constituency in Greenwich had turned against him, so he decided to run for Parliament in Endinburgshire, Scotland, also known as Midlothain. The political campaign running up to the election of 1880 produced some of Gladsone's best known thoughts on foreign policy. In the first of what have become known as his Midlothain speeches Gladstone criticized the government's involvement in Egyptian local affairs, the Afghan war, and the lack of pressure on Turkey to reform. He suggested trade penalties, in conjunction with other European nations against Turkey to coerce her to adopt more liberal policies. To the Tory's defense of their policies, that their policies had the support of the House of Commons, including many Liberals, Gladstone countered that the Commons always supported the views of the government. The reason for this was the desire to present a united face of British government to the world, which was a worthwhile goal. Thus the blame for the failed policies remained upon the Conservative leadership. He didn't so much oppose the goals of Disraeli's government, but their methods when he hoped their efforts would be successful, specifically "I point to Africa, I point to India, I point to Afghanistan, to Syria, to Asia Minor, to the whole of Turkey in Asia". He suggested the government had overreached its capabilities be involving itself in so many conflicts, including the annexation of the Transvaal against the wishes of the local population, especially "compel them to accept a citizenship which they decline and refuse". He attacked the German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, which the Tories had agreed to, as another example of forcing a Christian people to accept government they opposed. He also blamed the Conservatives for mishandling India, "the confusion
into which the affairs of India have been brought". He also criticized brutality by British forces:
"That a nation whom we term savages have in defence of their own land offered their naked bodies to the terribly improved artillery and arms of modern European science, and have been mowed down by hundreds and by thousands, having committed no offence, but having, with rude and ignorant courage, done what were for them, and done faithfully and bravely what were for them, the duties of patriotism."
"a village attacks had made upon the British forces, and that in consequence the village had been burned. Have you ever reflected on the meaning of these words We, in the pursuit of our political objects, chose to establish military positions in their country. If they resisted, would not you have done the same?"
In the third Midlothain speech Gladstone laid out a list of foreign policy fundamentals:
first principle of foreign policy: good government at home.
second principle of foreign policy is thisthat its aim ought to be to preserve to the nations of the world especially to the Christian nations of the worldthe blessings of peace.
the third sound principle is thisto strive to cultivate and maintain, ay, to the very uttermost, what is called the concert of Europe; to keep the powers of Europe in union together. ourselves more entitled to an opinion on that subject than they are, or to deny their rights selfish aims
My fourth principle isthat you should avoid needless and entangling engagements.
My fifth principle is this, gentlemen, to acknowledge the equal rights of all nations
He also said: "the foreign policy of England should always be inspired by the love of freedom founded upon the deepest and most profound love of order."
With a new issue secured, Gladstone had returned as the defacto leader of the Liberal party. The election of 1880 returned 353 Liberals, 238 Conservatives, and 61 Irish Home Rulers, and Gladstone was the obvious leader of the Liberals.
Gladstone's new cabinet of twenty members was composed of almost half Whig, a quarter true Liberals, Gladstone and another Peelite, and three radicals. The new government faced a foreign policy crisis in late 1881 when a nationalist uprising took power in Egypt. France's seizure of Tunis on May 19, 1881 had inflamed the Muslim world against European imperialism. Some in the cabinet and foreign office saw this as an opportunity to extend British dominance over Egypt, lead by Lord Hartington. Hartington was against negations with terrorists. Gladstone and other Liberals were sympathetic to Egyptian nationalism , but this idealism was to take second place to the security of the Suez Canal.
The Suez Canal had become critical to trade, especially for the British. British ships carried 70% of the canal's tonnage. Gladstone had personally invested heavily in the Egyptian economy, owning stocks worth 51,000 pounds in 1881. Like Disraeli, and later Lord Salisbury, Gladstone preferred informal control of Egypt. So, he requested the Turkish sultan, Abduh Hamid II, send troops to quell the uprising in Egypt, but sultan refused. Gladstone felt the leader of the Ottoman Empire was working to foment to rebellion. While the sultan refused to send troops, the French would not accept negotiations with the rebels.
At the same time, on May 6, 1882 the undersecretary for Ireland Thomas Burke and Gladstone's cousin by marriage, Lord Harrington, were murdered by Irish nationalists. This enraged British nationalist sentiment, which boiled over into the public's opinion regarding Egypt. Gladstone's cabinet encouraged a show of force against Ireland. Rather than dissolve his government Gladstone chose to agree with the majority opinion.
The French insisted on sending a joint fleet to Egypt with the goal of replacing the nationalist government in Egypt. On May 13, 1882, Gladstone reluctantly agreed. When the fleet started arriving all order collapsed at Alexandria. The mob started killing all the Europeans they could find. The Tory Leader, Lord Salisbury blamed Gladstone: "Butchered under the very guns of the fleet". The press went wild and even many Radicals encouraged a forceful response.
The entire nationalist government of Egypt resigned, at the behest of the British and French, but the Egyptian army refused Urabi's, the Egyptian nationalist leader, resignation. On June 6, Abdul Hamid II sent two emissaries to Egypt, with the cross-purposes of discouraging and fomenting the resistance. Sheikh Ahmed Assad indicated to the nationalist that the sultan was sympathetic with their efforts. Urabi swore loyalty to the sultan, saying he was fighting for Islamic unity. The other, Dervish Pasha, ordered Urabi to Constantinople, who refused. Dervish criticized the movement's failure to follow the wishes of the sultan. Supporters of the nationalist were encouraged to riot.
On July 11 the fleet was ordered to attack the nationalist batteries in and around Alexandria. The city was hit by many shells from this bombardment. This has been attributed to stray rounds. Pictures of the city taken afterwards show entire city blocks destroyed. Whole streets were obviously heavily bombarded, including the street of the European Consulate, Okelle Neuve, Ramieh Boulevard 'commercial district', Alexandria Bazar, the Hotel d'Europe, and the Mohammed Ali Square. The British landed troops, but could not control the rioting. The city caught fire, either from the shelling or from rioters setting fires. People attempting to leave the city were greeted by Bedouin robbers. The city burned for two days, then British Marines took control of the city. The British occupation of Egypt was a reality.
The Troublemakers by A.J.P. Taylor discusses Gladstone's foreign policy. Taylor talks about the Midlothian speeches, saying "the twists of Gladstone's utterances make it almost impossible to pin down his thought." Taylor does a good job of interpreting for us. Taylor correctly identifies to the Concert of Europe as an important exception to Gladstone's otherwise reluctance toward foreign adventures.
Taylor then says Gladstone did not act on his own principles, that he subordinated his views to parliamentary tactics. On many levels, that's true. He would compromise his position in accepting the view of the majority of his Cabinet. But if one reads beyond the main points in the first Midlothian speech (at least) Gladstone did discuss the importance of the view of the House of Commons and presenting a unified England to the rest of world (once again, especially Europe). Gladstone the politician had provided himself wiggle room for future action. Gladstone supported using embargoes, or invasions, if they were actions where the Concert of Nations was working in harmony.
Taylor says part of the explanation for the invasion of Egypt was 'drift', and that sending the Fleet to Cairo was a bluff. Taylor acknowledges that some historians have pointed to financial gain as a motive for the Egyptian expedition, that there was some truth to that part of the tale. But, he also points to the Radicals and Liberals who agreed with the occupation of Egypt. This was not a partisan adventure, but a national one spurred on by powerful Jingoism.
Robert T. Harrison claims the occupation of Egypt was planned. He points to long term plans discussed in cabinet meetings along the goal of occupying Egypt, the extensive bombardment of the city, and the U.S. consul in Egypt who claimed the British and European representatives wanted British occupation, so they skewed their reports to the press and the government. Harrison identifies a cover-up of the events. The goal of the cover-up was to frame Arabi (as Harrison spells the name) even though he was in Cairo, not Alexandria, at the time of the riot.
The occupation of Egypt is not necessarily contradictory to Gladstone's policy. The Suez Canal was clearly part of the Concert of Nations. It made commerce much more efficient, helping trade. Thus was an important strategic goal, and it should be governed wisely. By the Concert of Europe Gladstone implied the Christian nations. Gladstone considered Christianity a requirement for true freedom, "the blessings of peace". Gladstone was certainly consistently agreeable to civilizing projects, as he saw them. He thought British colonization helped those colonized, but didn't want to run unprofitable colonies. I found this quote to be descriptive of Gladstone's policies: "His Christian moralism persuaded him to sympathies with liberal movements, but his innate conservatism left him always with reverence for authority and order."
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This is quite an interesting historical account . It will take me some time to absorb it all . However , here is one point I would like to bring up . The role of Britain in the US civil war is a complex one . They were the trading partners of the Confederacy since they were the customers for raw cotton to use in their textile mills . So they might have leant more support than that single ship , the Alabama . [OK that was really a commercial action .]
But there were reasons that they didn't become more involved in helping the South . One was that the South tried to extort Britain by witholding cotton . It caused a temporary economic problem in the UK . But a crop like cotton has numerous sources . Britain eventually acquired new sources of supply from Egypt , India & China . And that was the end of her involvement with the South . I expect the loss of the war of 1812 also had something to do with a reluctance to take sides in the US civil war too but I don't know enough about that history .
Another observation : from your description Gladstone seemed to be the financial guru for the Brits serving as chancellor of the Exchequer. The financial history of the Brits is quite an interesting one as well . Separating out the strictly financial issues from the political ones is tricky I expect .
That list of 5 foreign policy fundamentals was IMO the most interesting part of this extensive thesis . Perhaps comparing the actual historical events to those principles would prove enlightening ...
And lastly the account of the war in Egypt was quite revealing even in regards to those 5 principles .
Thanks Petey.
On the Brits joining the South in the War between the States, Lincoln locked that idea out for any country opposed to slavery. That's powerful politics there.